Mulloway inhabit central and southern, mainland Australian waters from Bundaberg and the Burnett River in Queensland to North West Cape in Western Australia. Although these fish are common in western Victoria, they are much less abundant between Melbourne and southern New South Wales and have rarely been reported from Bass Strait (Ref. 26262).

Stock structure: Preliminary stock identification studies, using electrophoresis on small samples from few localities, indicate the existence of 2 subpopulations of mulloway around Australia: one in Western Australia from about Carnarvon to Mandurah, south of Perth, the other from South Australia to New South Wales. There are also genetic differences between Western Australian, Great Australian Bight, the Coorong and New South Wales samples, suggesting the possibility of further population substructuring (Ref. 28599). However, studies of mitochondrial DNA have so far hinted at a single interbreeding population of mulloway stretching from Sydney around the east coast to at least the south-west coast of South Australia (Ref. 28600).

Commercial fishery: Mulloway are caught commercially throughout their range. They are generally caught near river mouths (eg, during floods) and in estuaries, although a reasonable number - mostly of spawning or spent adults - are caught off surf beaches. Some mulloway are taken as bycatch (in both coastal and more offshore waters) of the gillnet fisheries for mullet and sharks in Western Australia and South Australia, and of the demersal otter trawl fishery for prawns in New South Wales.

In South Australia, the main fishery is in the Coorong, with lesser activity in southeast, Gulf of St Vincent and west coast waters. In Victoria, the fishery is concentrated on the west coast, although there are incidental catches in most bays and estuaries. In New South Wales, mulloway are fished along the entire coast, although the largest catches are taken between Port Jackson (Sydney) and the Tweed River. Smaller, mostly offshore fisheries exist south of Sydney, in southern Queensland and in the Swan - Avon River estuary (near Perth) and Shark Bay in Western Australia.

Most mulloway are caught in bottom set gillnets and haul nets although larger fish are generally caught using swinger nets, beach seines and handlines or rod-and-reel with live or dead bait.

The year-round South Australian fishery is based on 3-6-year-old fish. Higher catches are generally taken from December to March in the Coorong with peaks in catch rates following peaks in the flow of the Murray River water through the 'barrages' (weirs or locks) 2 or 3 years earlier (Ref. 4850, 28470). There is some evidence from the Coorong that freshwater inflow has an influence on the recruitment of juvenile fish. The Coorong fishery has declined over recent years (Ref. 28470), and the fishing effort now switches between the marine Coorong area and the associated lakes Alexandrina and Albert, depending on the abundance of fish and the relative price of freshwater and marine fish. Approximately 20% of the mulloway catch is taken by shark fishers outside the Coorong.

The southern Queensland, New South Wales and Western Australian fisheries target adult fish, although significant quantities of juveniles (less than 38 cm long) are caught incidentally in estuaries by gillnetting and by trawlers.

In all southern mainland States, mulloway are sold on local markets as fresh, gutted fish.

Recreational fishery: Mulloway are popular recreational fish along the entire Victorian coast, and are caught off beaches, around inshore reefs and river mouths. Catches near rivers escalate following 'freshes'. The fish are caught on handlines, rod-and-line, and with spears by snorkellers and occasionally with gillnets. Although large adults are sought by anglers, many of the fish caught are 'soapies' of less than 2.5 kg weight. The largest mulloway taken by a recreational angler was 43 kg from South Australia (Australian Anglers Association record).

Information from tag returns suggests that the recreational catch in South Australia may be up to one third of the commercial catch there; and mulloway is one of the most commonly caught species in Sydney Harbour, where 9 t were reported taken in 1980-81 (Ref. 28601). The recreational catch from offshore anglers in New South Wales waters is on average higher than the catch by commercial fishers, whereas the inshore recreational catch is comparable with, or less than, the commercial catch.

Resource status: The status of the stocks is unknown in Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia as of 1993. In New South Wales, where large numbers of small mulloway are taken by trawlers, decline in the commercial catch of mulloway in recent years is causing concern. The reduction in flow from the Murray River has affected the spawning potential of mulloway in South Australia, with some evidence of a decline in catches (Ref. 28602). Also Ref. 2156, 6390.